【求drama】求樱日梯子老师的《被想让他拥抱第一的男人威胁了》drama！！！_百度知道
【求drama】求樱日梯子老师的《被想让他拥抱第一的男人威胁了》drama！！！
h a i c x b @ q q . c o m
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出门在外也不愁求中村明日美子老师的O.B的drama_百度知道
求中村明日美子老师的O.B的drama
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出门在外也不愁From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Dramas" and "Dramatics" redirect here. For other uses, see .
Drama is the specific
of , typically ,
in . The term comes from the
word δρ?μα, drama, meaning , which is derived from the verb δρ?ω, draō, meaning to do or to act.
The term "the drama" refers to "the dramatic
the dramatic art". The term "drama" can refer to any kind of dramatic performance, including , , , and , however, this article is concerned solely with the enactment of a play in a , performed by , on a , before an . Unlike other forms of
is directly influenced by this
mode of production and a
form of reception.
The two masks that represent
Two symbolic masks are traditionally associated with drama to represent the
division between
and . They are symbols of the
and , the Muse of comedy represented by the laughing face, and the Muse of tragedy represented by the weeping face, respectively. Considered as a genre of
in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the
modes ever since 's
(c. 335 BC)—the earliest work of .
Since the , the word "drama" has also been used in a more narrow sense to designate a specific type of . Drama is defined in this modern usage as "a genre of
(or ) intended to be more serious than
in tone" which focuses on in-depth
of realistic characters who must deal with realistic emotional struggles. A drama is commonly considered the opposite of a , but may also be considered separate from other works of some broad genre, such as a .
It is this narrow sense that the
industry and
adopted to describe "" as a
within their respective media. "" has been used in both senses, and it was originally used to described a play transmitted a but it is also used to describe the more serious end of the dramatic output on the radio.
A dramatic work can include
is generally sung throughout,
generally include both spoken , and , and may
and some plays,
and Japanese , for example, have , or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue. In certain periods of history, including ancient
and the nineteenth century, some dramas were written to be
rather than performed. In
there is no script and performers devise their performance spontaneously before an audience.
drama originates in . The
produced three
of drama: , , and the . Their origins remain obscure, though by the 5th century BC they were
held as part of
celebrating the god . Historians know the names of many ancient Greek dramatists, not least , who is credited with the innovation of an actor ("hypokrites") who speaks (rather than sings) and impersonates a
(rather than speaking in his own person), while interacting with the
and its leader (""), who were a traditional part of the performance of non-dramatic poetry (,
Only a small fraction of the work of five dramatists, however, has survived to this day: we have a small number of complete texts by the tragedians ,
and , and the comic writers
and, from the late 4th century, . Aeschylus' historical tragedy
is the oldest surviving drama, although when it won first prize at the
competition in 472 BC, he had been writing plays for more than 25 years. The competition ("") for tragedies may have begun as early as 534 BC; official records ("didaskaliai") begin from 501 BC, when the
was introduced. Tragic dramatists were required to present a
of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play (though exceptions were made, as with Euripides'
in 438 BC).
was officially recognized with a prize in the competition from 487 to 486 BC.
Five comic dramatists competed at the City Dionysia (though during the
this may have been reduced to three), each offering a single comedy.
is traditionally divided between "old comedy" (5th century BC), "middle comedy" (4th century BC) and "new comedy" (late 4th century to 2nd BC).
Following the expansion of the
(509–27 BC) into several Greek territories between 270–240 BC, Rome encountered . From the later years of the republic and by means of the
(27 BC-476 AD), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and reached E
was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it.
While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BC marks the beginning of regular . From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments. The first important works of
wrote from 240 BC. Five years later,
also began to write drama. No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both , Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naev their successors tended to specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama.
By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome and a
of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed. The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists:
(Plautus) and
(Terence). In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the
in dividing the drama into
and introduced musical accompaniment to its
(between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence). The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from .
Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BC and twenty of his comedies survive, of which he was admired for the
of his dialogue and his use of a variety of . All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BC the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour. No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly historians know of three early tragedians—,
From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the
. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabula crepidata (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his , for example, was based on ' . Historians do not know who wrote the only
example of the fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects), , but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a
in the tragedy.
In the Middle Ages, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from religious enactments of the .
were presented on the porch of the cathedrals or by strolling players on .
and mystery plays, along with
and interludes, later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as was seen on the Elizabethan stages.
Main article:
One of the great flowerings of drama in
occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these plays were written in verse, particularly . In addition to Shakespeare, such authors as , , and
were prominent playwrights during this period. As in the , historical plays celebrated the lives of past kings, enhancing the image of the
monarchy. Authors of this period drew some of their storylines from
or from the plays of eminent Roman playwrights such as
The pivotal and innovative contributions of the
Norwegian dramatist
d each inspired a tradition of imitators, which include many of the greatest playwrights of the modern era. The works of both playwrights are, in their different ways, both
and , incorporating formal , , and . In terms of the traditional theoretical discourse of genre, Ibsen's work has been described as the culmination of "", while Brecht's has been aligned with an
Other important playwrights of the modern era include Antonin Artaud, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .
Main article:
The earliest form of
drama was the
that is said to have its framework directly given by Lord Shiva who used these techniques to pray to Lord Vishnu. Between the 1st century AD and the 10th was a period of relative peace in the
during which hundreds of modern plays were written. With the
that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely. Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Modern Indian theatre developed during the
under the , from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.
Performer playing
Main article:
The earliest-surviving fragments of
date from the 1st century AD. The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre. The ancient
( from between 1500 and 1000 BC that are among the earliest examples of
in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of ) and the
do not appear to have developed into theatre. The
contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama. This treatise on
from 140 BC provides a feasible date for the beginnings of .
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is
(Nātya?āstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BC to 200 AD) and whose authorship is attributed to . The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses , , , , , , , , the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a
account of the origin of theatre.
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of . It utilised , such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. It was patronized by the kings as well as village assemblies. Famous early playwrights include ,
(famous for , , and ),
(famous for ), , , and
(famous for ,
(in English translation) influenced
Rabindranath Tagore, was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed. His plays are written in
and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910),
(Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924). Girish Karnad is a noted playwright, who has written a number of plays that use history and mythology, to critique and problematize ideas and ideals that are of contemporary relevance. Karnad's numerous plays such as Tughlaq, Hayavadana,
and Naga-Mandala are significant contributions to Indian drama.
are amongst the major Indian playwrights of the 20th century. Mohan Rakesh in Hindi and Danish Iqbal in Urdu are considered architects of new age Drama. Mohan Rakesh's Aadhe Adhoore and Danish Iqbal's 'Dara Shikoh' are considered modern classics.
Urdu Drama evolved from the prevailing dramatic traditions of North India shaping Rahas or Raas as practiced by exponents like
of . His dramatic experiments led to the famous
and later this tradition took the shape of Parsi Theatre. Agha Hashr Kashmiri is the culmination of this tradition.
In some way or other, Urdu theatre tradition has greatly influenced modern . Among all the languages
(which was called
by early writers), along with ,
theatres have kept flourishing and demand for its writers and artists has not subsided by the drama aficionados. For Urdu drama, no place is better than Bombay Film industry otherwise known as . All the early gems of Urdu Theatre (performed by Parsi Companies) were made into films. Urdu Dramatic tradition has been a spectator’s delight since 100 years and counting.
Drama as a theme is made up of several elements. It focuses on life and different aspects of it. The thing to be noticed here is that drama on stage imitates drama in life. It has been said that, there has always been a mutual relationship between theatre and real life. Great historical personalities like Shakespeare have influenced Modern Urdu tradition to a large extent when Indian, Iranian, Turkish stories and folk was adapted for stage with heavy doses of . In modern times writers like , Rafi Peer, , , Upender Nath Ashk, Ghulam Rabbani, Prof. Mujeeb and many others shaped this tradition.
While Prof Hasan, Ghulam Jeelani, J.N,Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi, etc. belong to the old generation, contemporary writers like Danish Iqbal, Sayeed Alam, Shahid Anwar, Iqbal Niyazi, and Anwar are a few
playwrights actively contributing in the field of Urdu Drama.
Sayeed Alam is known for his wit and humour and more particularly for Plays like 'Ghalib in New Delhi', 'Big B' and many other gems which are regularly staged for massive turn out of theatre lovers. Maulana Azad is his magnum opus both for its content and style.
Danish Iqbal's play about '' directed by
is considered a modern classic for the use of newer theatre techniques and contemporary perspective. His other plays are '' on the famous lyricist and revolutionary poet. 'Kuchh Ishq kiya Kuchh Kaam' is another play written by Danish which is basically a Celebration of the 's poetry, featuring events from the early part of his life, particularly the events and incidents of pre-partition days which shaped his life and ideals. 'Chand Roz Aur Meri Jaan' – another play inspired from Faiz's letters written from various jails during the
days. He has written 14 other plays including 'Dilli Jo Ek Shehr Thaa' and 'Main Gaya Waqt Nahin hoon'. Shahid's 'Three B' is also a significant play. He has been associated with many groups like 'Natwa' and others. Zaheer Anwar has kept the flag of Urdu theatre flying in . Unlike the writers of previous generation Sayeed, Shahid, Danish Iqbal and Zaheer do not write bookish plays but their work is a product of vigorous performing tradition. Iqbal Niyazi of
has written several plays in Urdu, his play "AUR KITNE JALYANWALA BAUGH?" won a National award other awards. Hence this is the only generation after Amanat and Agha Hashr who actually write for stage and not for libraries.
commemorating , one of the great Chinese dramatists, who is renowned for his "" plays.
Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called
although this normally refers specifically to the popular there have been many other forms of theatre in China, such as .
is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform Nō dramas. Nō drama was supported by the government, and particularly the military, with many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes performing themselves. It is still performed in Japan today.
is the comic counterpart to Nō drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although Nō instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyōgen.
drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic form, which includes dance.
This section needs additional citations for . Please help
by . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2016) ()
is a dramatic art form, which arose during the
in an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama tradition in which both music and theatre were combined. Being strongly intertwined with , the opera has undergone enormous changes in the past four centuries and it is an important form of theatre until this day. Noteworthy is the major influence of the German 19th-century composer
on the opera tradition. In his view, there was no proper balance between music and theatre in the operas of his time, because the music seemed to be more important than the dramatic aspects in these works. To restore the connection with the traditional , he entirely renewed the operatic format, and to emphasize the equal importance of music and drama in these new works, he called them "".
has seen a more conservative development over a somewhat longer period of time.
Main article:
These stories follow in the tradition of
and . Usually there is a lesson learned, and with some help from the audience, the hero/heroine saves the day. This kind of play uses
seen in masque and again , these characters include the villain (doctore), the clown/servant (Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons), the lovers etc. These plays usually have an emphasis on , and good always triumphs over evil, this kind of play is also very entertaining making it a very effective way of reaching many people.
is a theatrical medium where the action of a story is told through the movement of the body, without the use of speech. Performance of mime occurred in , and the word is taken from a single masked dancer called Pantomimus, although their performances were not necessarily silent. In
Europe early forms of mime, such as
and later , evolved. In the early nineteenth century ,
solidified the many attributes that we have come to know in modern times, including the silent figure in whiteface.
, strongly influenced by
and Japanese
theatre, used masks in the training of his actors. , a pupil of his, was highly influenced by this and started exploring and developing the possibilities of mime and refined
into a highly sculptural form, taking it outside of the realms of .
contributed significantly to the development of mime and
with his training methods.
includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children. Its roots in the United States began in the early 1900s.
is considered to be the founder of creative drama in education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois.
—An Indian musical drama
Elam (1980, 98).
Oxford English Dictionary.
Pfister (1977, 11).
writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a , is not primarily a composition
result, as one might put it, from the underlying
remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of
r since he is a poet because he , and what he imitates are '" (1949, 8).
. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2015. a play, movie, television show, or radio show that is about a serious subject and is not meant to make the audience laugh,
See also Wikipedia's .
Banham (–900).
See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham (1998).
While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman
were not intended to be performed.
is a good example of a . See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham (1998).
Some forms of improvisation, notably the , improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (see Gordon (1983) and Duchartre (1929)). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with
in the UK and
in the USA; see Johnstone (1981) and Spolin (1963).
Brown (), Cartledge (), Goldhill (1997, 54), and Ley (). Taxidou,
notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (). Brown writes that
"was essentially the creation of : all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BC (the time of the ), and all the surviving plays date from this period" (). "The dominant culture of ", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented " (1997, 54).
Brockett and Hildy () and Banham (–447).
Banham (–444). For more information on these ancient Greek dramatists, see .
The theory that
was not written by
would bring this number to six dramatists whose work survives.
Banham (1998, 8) and Brockett and Hildy ().
Brockett and Hildy () and Banham ().
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 18) and Banham (–445).
Banham (–445).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43).
Brockett and Hildy ().
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43). For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see .
Brockett and Hildy ().
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47).
Brockett and Hildy ().
Brockett and Hildy ().
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 50).
Brockett and Hildy ().
Williams () and Moi (2006, 17). Moi writes that "Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the founder of modern theater. His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year, there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world." Ibs Brechtians include , ,
, , , , , , , , and .
Moi (–26). Taxidou writes: "It is probably historically more accurate, although methodologically less satisfactory, to read the
in conjunction with the more anti-illusionist aesthetics of the theatres of the same period. These interlock and overlap in all sorts of complicated ways, even when they are vehemently denouncing each other (perhaps particularly when) in the favoured mode of the time, the manifesto" (2007, 58).
Williams (1966) and Wright (1989).
Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond ().
Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond ().
Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
Richmond () and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).
Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (–517).
Richmond ().
Richmond ().
Brandon (1981, xvii).
Banham ().
. Archived from
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Callery, Dympha (2001). Through the Body: A Practical Guide to Physical Theatre. London: Nick Hern Books.  .
Harriet W. Ehrlich, "Creative Dramatics as a Classroom Teaching Technique". Elementary English, Vol. 51, No. 1 (January 1974), pp. 75–80
Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. .
Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii–xx).
---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. .
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Brown, Andrew. 1998. "Ancient Greece." In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 441–447. .
Carlson, Marvin. 1993. Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. .
Cartledge, Paul. 1997. "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life." In Easterling (1997c, 3–35).
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—. 1997b. "Form and Performance." In Easterling (1997c, 151–177).
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. 1949. The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1968. .
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---. 2007. The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. .
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